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Roberta Orsi Landini “The Origins of Modern Production: The Differences in Velvet Produced for Clothing and for Furnishing in the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries” P.155-8

It is only comparatively recent that any distinction has been made between textiles produced for clothing and those for furnishing. Differences began to appear between types and designs of cloth in both categories from the mid-sixteenth century, and gradually precise characteristics and qualities were defined, which over the years became increasingly specialised. Silk velvet is particularly adapted to demonstrate the advance of this trend: it offers endless variety in its finished appearance. It is also of particular interest on account of its symbolic importance and for its long association with royalty, wealth and power.

The weight and texture of velvet, which now condition its use, were considered advantageous qualities in the fifteenth century when velvet was highly prized and became the most precious cloth on the market. The weight of a garment, depending on the quantity of precious material employed and the frequent addition of silver and gold thread, was highly esteemed, as it reflected directly on the importance of the person. The weight and texture of velvet readily adapted it “to shaping the human form and make it appear” more statuesque. There was little choice in the patterns available, limited to designs symbolising the Passion of Christ, his Resurrection and Eternal Life. It is true that at the end of the fifteenth century some velvets with gold, with a thick ground weft stiffening the cloth (cat. 6), were evidently more suitable for use as wall-hangings while others, of softer texture and with a smaller pattern (cat. 5) were more adapted to clothing. In painting, however, until the mid-sixteenth century as a general rule the same textiles clothing persons of rank were also depicted as wall-hangings, curtains or draping thrones (Fig. 1).

The increased specialisation in production was undoubtedly caused by changes in the political and economic situation at the time, which given the scope of the present study we are unable to analyse in any depth. But the shift in commercial interest from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic and the subsequent changes in international trade, the great political and religious wars between the European powers, the Reformation and Counter-Reformation, together with plagues and famines were all factors which had a profound effect on the political and economic climate in which the Italian silk producers operated. The conditions which favoured the growth and prosperity of Venice, Florence, Genoa, Milan, the most prestigious centres for silk production, no longer prevailed; commercial outlets had either shifted or appeared completely exhausted, the magnificent Italian Renaissance courts were no longer the supreme arbiters of taste, the demand for luxury goods had changed, not in quantity but in quality. It was therefore vital to revitalise production, by discontinuing certain manufactures and increasing others, but most importantly, by creating new ones.

Changes in the production of the most important textile, velvet, which developed alongside changes in manufacturing as a whole, are representative of the wider process, and without embarking on a detailed analysis of the economic problems involved we can make observations based on a study of the surviving examples of the cloth produced during this period. The predominance acquired by Italian silk manufactures on the international market in the fifteenth century, based on the quality of Italian velvets, arose from the particular social and economic conditions prevailing in the centres of production as well as from textile innovations. As historians have demonstrated, the silk industry depended on the organisation of many activities not exclusively associated with silk, on the acquisition and treatment of the raw material, on the manufacture of the necessary equipment, but especially on financial and commercial structures. The latter, together with the establishment of an adequate transportation system, shipping and ports gave stability to trade, and guaranteed a constant supply to meet contemporary demand but also any potential increase in that demand. The urban economy was nourished by this commercial activity which ensured the wealth, prosperity and survival of various social classes. It was a situation which differed dramatically from previous Imperial silk manufactures and provided the ideal conditions for research and experimentation, for technical advances and the creation of new products. Velvet itself gained a new significance, its technical and aesthetic qualities recommended it as the perfect expression of the taste of the new elite, the symbol of their status. It was a product for an upper status whose power was based on wealth and who recruited members from beyond those classes historically regarded as privileged. It was by no means accidental that the manufacture of velvet developed in centres supported by a strong merchant class, of new men, even if some from old patrician families, whose spirit of enterprise and staking of fortunes had signalled the end of the feudal world. Being established bankers they had enormous capital at their disposal, which they not only willingly lent to rulers of other states but which they also invested in their native silk industry which therefore greatly flourished, The cloth they wore and gave as offerings to the European markets and to the Islamic world beyond, differed from previous luxury textiles in its weight and drape. Its three-dimensional quality greatly enhanced its allure and caused reassessment of the value of matter and of money. Great sums of money were required to purchase raw materials. The silk itself was largely imported and the most precious dyes, including the extremely expensive kermes, came from the Orient. Costly, too, were the gold and silver used to enrich the most sumptuous cloth as were the salaries paid to the highly skilled artisans needed to transform the metal threads into the finished product.

The production of velvet required particular looms, equipment and procedures. Technical innovations were richly rewarded and jealously protected. The silk producers in the principal centres sought out the most skilled weavers from their competitors, even if a weaver’s betrayal was forbidden and a criminal act. The strict regulations imposed by the guilds in Italian cities, not always observed, sought to ensure high standards of production and to maintain a distinctive and consistent quality, of benefit to the producer and purchaser alike.

The design of fifteenth-century velvets also underwent great change. The favourite design, based on the theme of Eternal Life, granted us by the sacrifice of Christ, was interpreted in two ways. The more complex design was asymmetrical and represented a large stem leading to a stylised fluorescence with pine cones, pomegranates and thistle flowers, inaccurately described as “a griccia” (Fig. 1); the other was simpler and symmetrical, centred around the pinecone and pomegranate, also described misleadingly as “cammino” (cat. 2). The skill of the designer depended on his ability to create infinite variations on these traditional themes, to produce pleasing and balanced designs which from the beginning of the fifteenth century were protected by law.

Variations in the finished cloth were produced by technical experimentation and by exploiting the three-dimensional quality and luminosity of the velvet. The luxurious connotations of the fabric were also significant and the price of velvet rose continually in this period, and as the price rose so did its symbolic power. The first half of the fifteenth century was undoubtedly when the most sumptuous and complex velvets were produced (cat. 7).

Political, economic and above all cultural changes in the course of the sixteenth century resulted in dramatic changes in the nature of the demand. Ostentatious and obviously expensive fabric, with sumptuous designs, was still acceptable at court and retained its symbolic importance but a new Spanish *.fashion was gaining popularity, in Italy as elsewhere, which favoured a more restrained and modest appearance. The presence of gold, the use of which was still controlled by sumptuary laws, became less apparent. Velvet, often stiff with precious metals,, had to take on a more discreet appearance and new designs requiring new techniques were sought. A study of these techniques, made possible by the considerable number of surviving samples, reflect the general situation which prevailed in the Italian silk industry. The gradual distinction between fabrics destined for clothing or for furnishing was the most noteworthy response made by silk producers to shifts in the market. Both types of cloth adopted new characteristics which with time became more clearly defined. Furnishing velvet motifs became larger, adopted classical designs, offered limited variety, and were of a stronger and heavier quality. Clothing velvets were lighter, had smaller patterns and with the beginning of the new century, appeared in exciting colours. In neither category, even though some of the velvets produced were of the very highest quality, would the richness of the finest Renaissance velvets ever be repeated.

Both the diversification and relative simplification of velvet production might be interpreted as the reaction to changes in taste and fashion or as the response to the crisis in manufacturing triggered by lack of investment confidence in a market which demanded enormous sums in order to produce the richest fabrics. Historians appear to agree that as far as capital investment in the silk industry was concerned, certainly with regard to the main manufacturing centres, in the course of the sixteenth century the sums involved did not diminish but actually increased. As the economic climate was not altogether reassuring and led to a real crisis, the changes in the silk industry should be regarded as a conscious and farsighted reaction to the economic situation: vast amounts were no longer to be invested in a few metres of cloth, when the same sum might produce much larger quantities, gaining less on a single piece but perhaps more on the total lengths sold. Changes in production in response in the various claims of the market, which as far as velvet, was concerned amounted to increased quantities of a simplified cloth, were reflected in the textile industry as a whole with a greater number of plain silks launched onto a highly competitive though much wider market.

The most specialised workers, who had always aimed at creating unusual and beautiful effects and at discovering technical and mechanical innovations to enhance the splendour of their cloth, redirected their efforts to lowering costs and improving the ratio between time and quality in manufacturing. The extent to which they were successful is amply demonstrated in the new products which appeared at this time (cat. 20-41).

Changes in production, not only in all sectors of the silk industry but in all kinds of finished cloth, involved considerable expense. Looms had to be adapted to variations in the consistency and weight of the cloth and to be able to execute new designs. These alterations required weeks of labour, essential when converting a loom from the production of symmetrical patterns, as were fashionable in the sixteenth century, to the more asymmetrical ones favoured at the end of the century. Such alterations were however considered an investment for the initial cost was soon amortised in the large quantities of cloth the newly mounted looms were capable of producing. It is also possible, at least in Florence, that the conspicuous increase in the quantity of raw silk produced following the decision to plant mulberry trees locally from the early fifteenth century lowered the cost of prime materials and made resources available for the reorganisation of production methods.

A study of velvet made for clothing in the years spanning from about 1580 to 1630 clearly reflects the weaver’s creative ability and provides us with a clearer picture of their preferences and production procedures. Viewed on a wider scale, encompassing the other textile types, these preferences and procedures are even more evident. Aside from being lighter in weight, velvets destined for clothing had smaller patterns and therefore were more readily adapted to the cutting and shaping of the garment. Smaller designs, in addition to diminishing the precious quality of the cloth, created less visual impact in favour of a more uniform impression: only on close examination could the design and quality be clearly understood. This characteristic is as interesting as it is ambiguous, allowing for patterns created solely for their overall effect (cat. 40,41,65) or for a refined elegance only comprehensible to a restricted number of experts (cat. 20, 28, 30, 31, 55). The selection of cloth was certainly increased to meet the different needs and economic potential of the market.

Small patterns, less complicated to set up on the loom, encouraged experimentation in technique and design not evident in furnishing fabrics with big patterns, and innovations in small patterned textiles became increasingly important in the course of the seventeenth century. Specialisation in production naturally led to clothing textiles becoming a fashion industry, they became consumer goods: such fabrics were reflective of status not only because of their real or apparent opulence but also because they might easily be put aside in favour of something new. Those velvets which appeared more luxurious than they really were (cat. 41, 44, 65) were not simply destined for the less wealthy customer, but offered, together with their extremely attractive appearance, the possibility of renewing one’s wardrobe with greater frequency and ease..

Fabrics with small designs had other commercial advantages which were not perhaps completely exploited. By rapid changes in the mounting of the looms it was not difficult to send samples to sales outlets and then weave on commission. The setting-up of large designs, and even more of those with rich decoration, was a lengthy operation making the production of samples impractical as once the loom was prepared it was essential to produce the whole length of cloth. And so, unless a specific commission had been made, sales were based on the cloth already produced, with all the risks necessarily entailed in such a system. The failure to fully utilise the possibilities offered by these new textile types was perhaps based on the fear of competition which, during the still comparatively long period of production, was a real one since new patterns and techniques were liable to be and indeed were, copied.

With the diversification of the cloth industry, what may be seen as a decline was in reality the “simplification” of textiles, accompanied by a series of innovations. These were, I believe, a deliberate response by the producers in order to maintain their predominance on the international market, already threatened by new products from abroad. These innovations bear witness to the vitality of the Italian silk industry in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The creative energy which adapted to changing needs and was capable of inventing new luxury products proved to be the continuous thread and crowning achievement of Renaissance weaving.

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One of the more helpful tidbits in the catalogue section is that the size of the pattern repeat is given where it can be determined. There are six 15th century fabrics in the book.

1. Velluto tagliato operato a un corpo
Venezia, 1st quarter 15th century
Size: 84.8 x 31.2 cm
Repeat: 22.4 x 12.8 cm
Milano, MPP, Inv n. 2721

2. Velluto tagliato operato a un corpo
Italia, 3rd quarter 15th century
Size: 90 x 56 cm
6 pezzi cuciti insieme
Repeat: 44 x 27.8 cm
Milano, MPP, Inv n. 2696

3. Velluto tagliato a due altezze operato a un corpo
Venezia, 2nd quarter 15th century
Size: 94 x 59 cm
2 pezzi provenienti da un paliotto disfatto
Repeat: ? x 30,3 cm
Milano, MPP, Inv n. 3203a

4. Velluto tagliato operato a due corpi, il secondo a disposizione
Venezia, 3rd quarter 15th century
Size: 112 x 25.5 cm
Repeat: 47 x 15 cm
Milano, MPP, Inv n. 2636

5. Velluto tagliato a due altezze operato a un corpo, broccato, con interventi di ricamo
Italy, 2nd half 15th century
Velluto: seta e oro filato; ricaom: sete policrome, argento lamellare e oro filato,
Size: 16 x 48 cm
Repeat: ? x 15 cm
Milano, MPP, Inv n. 2680